The word "orthodox" (Russian pravoslavny) means "true to the word." This is because Orthodoxy emphasizes the preservation of ritual and practice in the church with as little change as possible. This differs from the more innovative approach to ritual often found in Western churches.
The Orthodox church structure also differs in many ways from that of Catholics and Protestants. There is a division between the white clergy, the parish priests (pop), who could marry; and the black clergy, the monks and nuns, who were supposed to remaine chaste. Only members of the black clergy could attain the highest ranks in the church (which included the patriarch, as well as the various bishops, archbishops, metropolitans which head various diocese, or church districts).
Russians did not always have a patriarch. From 988 until 1037, Kievan Rus was considered part of the diocese of Constantinople and did not have its own patriarch. In 1037 Kiev came to be ruled by its own metropolitan, or bishop, but the Russians still looked to Byzantium for spiritual guidance. Only in the14th century did the Russian church became truly autocephalous, an independent national church ruled by its own Patriarch. And in the 18th century Peter the Great replaced the patriarch with a church council called the Holy Synod. The Communist government reinstated the office of Patriarch in 1925 and used the position to control church dealings with Orthodox Christians beyond the borders of Russia. Today the patriarch resides in Moscow and has become much more independent of the Russian government.
A. Main centers of culture and their monuments of architecture. Early Russian Church architecture adapted Byzantine forms to the wide Russian landscape, often incorporating techniques from secular Russian wooden architecture. The earliest cathedrals were very much in the Greek tradition, but soon a unique Russian style of church developed.
1) Kiev, the first seat of the grand prince: The Cathedral of Saint Sophia (earliest large church in Rus; patterned after Hagia Sophia in Constantinople; multiplicity of domes, not yet onion shaped).
2) Novgorod, a unique city in Rus since it was usually ruled by a democratically elected veche, not a prince: The Cathedral of Saint Sophia (patterned after Kiev's cathedral).
3) Vladimir, which gradually eclipsed Kiev in the 12th century as the most important Russian city; became the home of the metropolitan (chief bishop) and the grand prince (main noble) of Rus: the multi-domed Assumption Cathedral and the Dmitriev Cathedral (early example of cathedral with zakomaras, rounded walls with semicircle above the roof line; shows detailed bas relief which became popular in the 12th century; also has a single imposing kupola, or dome, which showed the first sign of transition to the onion or teardrop shape familiar in post-Kievan times).
Kievan architecture evolved unique forms and did not remain simply an imitation of Byzantine forms. By the 13th century, cathedrals came to have a complement of five kupolas: one large one in the center to symbolize Christ, and four smaller ones around it to symbolize the four Gospel writers: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Belltowers were often cone-shaped.
B. Icon painting. The art of icon painting adhered much more closely than architecture to Byzantine form and tradition--perhaps because panel painting was an entirely new art to Russians. Only after the end of the Kievan period did various individual Russian cities develop their own styles and schools. The first famous icon painter, Alimpi Pechersky, painted in Kiev and was mentioned in the chronicles. Already, however, innovation was being felt: Russian icons were often much larger than those of Byzantium, perhaps an unconscious adaptation to the art of icon painting to the Russian land.
1. Subject. All icons were religious in character. The earliest icons depicted Christ, Mary, or one of the saints. These depictions often took characteristic poses. Some of the most common were: Oranta--Mary depicted with outstretched arms; Dormition (Uspe”nie)--depiction of Mary ascending into Heavan; Tenderness (Umilenie)--Mary with the Christ Child snuggled up to her face; Hodigitria--Mary with the Christ Child looking like a little adult and making a hand gesture; Christ Enthroned in Power (Khristos v silakh)--depicted seated in Heaven on a diamond in a circle; Christ-Not-Made-by-Human-Hands (Spas nerukotvo”rnyj)--depiction of Christ's face on Veronica's veil.
2. Constructing the icon panel. Linden wood was used, farther north pine or even fir and larch were used. Often several planks were fastened together with cross boards on the back. The seasoned board was hollowed out, creating a flat center (called a kovcheg) surrounded by a slightly raised frame. Gesso was applied to the surface, then paints were ready to be added. The Byzantines used beeswax paint; the Russians used egg tempera mixed with various vegetable, animal and mineral pigments. The finished icon was painted over with varnish to give it a shiny surface. Later icons were encased in metal--with a metallic oklad as a halo and a metal riza as garments. Sometimes only the painted face and hands of the figure remained visible. When the varnish (olivka) darkened with age, the icon board was painted over with another icon.
3. Symbolism in the icon. Since most of the Russian population could not read, the symbolism of the icons fulfilled the purpose of teaching the general population about the Faith.
a. Reverse perspective. The icon was intentionally non-lifelike in its depiction of the real world. Perspective was more two dimensional than three dimensional. Icon figure was a bridge between the unseen realm of the eternal spirit and the worldly realm of the viewer. Flesh tones were somber, not true to life. Many peasants, however, worshipped icons as deities. In peasant huts icons were kept in the red corner, that is, the corner opposite the entry door.
b. Spatial transformations. Relative size of figures and objects not true to life but rather reflected their relative importance, e.g., the figure of a saint would be twice as large as the figures of people surrounding him.
c. Temporal transformations. scenes taking place at different times would often be shown together on the same canvas. Biographical icons-- portrait of a saint surrounded by a series of pictures depicting scenes from his life.
d. Color. Symbols from Greek theory of color: Gold symbolized divine energy, green--youthfulness and vitality, red recalled the blood of martyrs as well as the life essence and was also associated with St. Elijiah and St. George; white symbolized purity; black, death and the darkness of hell. By the way, red was the most admired color in Russian; even before the Christianization, red was the color of beauty (krasny = red; krasivy = beautiful).
e. Attributes.
i. Nimbus: the halo that surrounded the head of any saint or member of the Holy Family. A nimbus does not appear around the heads of people who are not saints or members of the Holy Family. Circle symbolised everlasting life. Christ's nimbus contained a cross.
ii. Objects: the four Gospel writers are shown holding books, prophets hold scrolls, prelates hold closed Gospel books, martyrs hold crosses; gold key is the symbol of St. Peter; St. George, as the slayer of the dragon, is shown with a spear; St. Nicholas, the protector of Russia and of building, is shown holding the model of a church; Adam's skull is shown at the base of Golgotha in scenes of the crucifiction, where legend says the Flood washed it.
iii. Gesture: hand touching the cheek symbolizes sadness, hand touching the lips symbolizes silence; gesture of two raised fingers denotes a blessing.